Current interests are the antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic activities of polyphenolic phytochemicals. In the pulp of mango, the major flavonols are glycosides of quercetin glucose, galactose, rhamnose, xylose, and arabinose , whereas kaempferol, isorhamnetin, fisetin, and myricetin are present in minor levels Berardini et al. The USDA, through this flavonoid database, has reported that g of edible portion of mango fruit contains anthocyanidins cyanidin, 0.
Thus, the main flavonoids that have detected in mango flesh are quercetin and glycosides derivatives; the most relevant is the flavonol glycoside quercetin 3-galactoside The seed and peel of mango fruit are also considered promising sources of polyphenols Ribeiro et al.
The xanthones are molecules formed by a C6—C3—C6 backbone structure with hydroxyl, methoxyl, and isoprene units linked to the A and B rings, which mostly occur as ethers or glycosides Negi et al.
Six xanthone derivatives have been identified mangiferin, dimethyl mangiferin, homomangiferin, mangiferin gallate, isomangiferin, and isomangiferin gallate ; among this group mangiferin C2- b -d-glucopyranosyl-1,3,6,7-tetrahydroxyxanthone , a C-glucosyl xanthone, is broadly distributed in higher plants, with demonstrated pharmacological and antioxidant activities. Mangiferin can be obtained from the bark, fruits, roots, and leaves of Mangifera indica Linn Matheyambath et al.
It has also described that mangiferin is able to activate anticancer, antimicrobial, antiatherosclerotic, antiallergenic, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and immunomodulatory activities Berardini et al. The content of mangiferin and derivatives is higher in the peel from Pica and Tommy Atkins mango fruit In Uba and Tommy Atkins cultivars from Brazil, mangiferin was detected as In another analysis of mangiferin of the pulp of 11 cultivars grown in China, only in five of them was mangiferin reported 0.
For the derivative compounds of mangiferin, some characteristic peaks were identified as corresponding to compounds identified provisionally as maclurin-mono- O -galloyl-glucose, maclurin-di- O -galloyl-glucose, iriflophenone di- O -galloyl-glucose Berardini et al. The color of the fruit peel is an important factor of mango maturation indices and quality, which changes from green to orange, yellow, or red flush, depending on the type of cultivar.
In mango fruit, the green pigmentation is attributed to the presence of chlorophylls Sudhakar et al. Two types of chlorophyll have been detected in mango fruit, chlorophylls a blue-green and b yellow-green , in a ratio of Medlicott et al.
In Tommy Atkins mango fruit, chloroplasts contain between 7 and 10 thylakoids per stack, connected through single intergranular thylakoids Medlicott et al.
Thylakoid system collapse inside the chloroplast at the beginning of ripening is associated with the loss of chlorophyll Medlicott et al. Several studies describe that chlorophyll breakdown is associated with the maturity of some fruits; Du et al. When fruit appears green, an abundance of chlorophyll masks the carotenoids. The yellow color of carotenoids is unmasked by chlorophyll degradation during ripening Charoenchongsuk et al. Taking this into account, the content of chlorophyll could be used as an indicator for the harvest in some fruits but not in others; for example, Charoenchongsuk et al.
Lechaudel et al. The high values of chlorophyll correspond to green color of the peel and the flesh for fruits inside the canopy, whereas low values of chlorophyll are present in the fruits located in the top of the canopy. The reduction in the chlorophyll content in the fruit is attributed to ethylene, which up-regulates the de novo synthesis of the enzyme chlorophyllase in the peel during ripening Mir et al.
Besides, chlorophyll can be also degraded by the peroxidase activity able to open the porphyrin ring, producing the loss of color Kato and Shimizu, The peroxidase activity in the peel of unripe and ripe Tongdum Thai mango was lesser than that in Nam Dokmai mango, which can explain the increased content of chlorophyll in Tongdum Ketsa et al.
Mango fruit is rich in carotenoid compounds. These molecules are lipid-soluble stains contributing to yellow-orange colors of mango fruit and red colors when mango is ripe, although the reddish color of peel in several varieties is due to anthocyanins Masibo and Qian, ; Sivankalyani et al. Carotenoids are located in the chromoplasts, often masked by chlorophyll and non-photosynthetic plant tissues Tanaka et al. The carotenoid levels in fruit are directly affected by the development and the environmental conditions during fruit growth Bramley, The variation in total carotenoid content in four different varieties of mango ripe and unripe was analyzed by Ellong et al.
They reported that total carotenoids of mango cultivars Bassignac, Green, Julie, and Moussache were between These values increased at the ripe stage, between A similar profile was observed in the total carotenoid contents of 12 mango varieties from Bangladesh at three stages of development: green 0. A significant difference only was found between the ripe and semi-ripe stages Corrales-Bernal et al. These values are higher than those in the Indian cultivars Saleem-Dar et al. Although the differences in the composition of carotenoids between different varieties may be due to environmental and genetic factors, state of maturation, production, and postharvest handling techniques, they can also be attributed to the analytical methods employed and to the unstable nature of carotenoids Burton-Freeman et al.
Also, they have a high vapor pressure that allows them to disperse easily and quickly in air, water, and soil Sharifi and Ryu, This group of compounds that determine the characteristic aroma of the fruit is commonly present in small quantities, approximately 50 ppm or less, which comprises mixtures of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and volatile oxygenates monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, esters, lactones, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, volatile fatty acids, some degradation product of phenols, and some carotenoids Bender et al.
They have a heterogeneous distribution quantitatively and qualitatively among cultivars, maturity stage, and tissues of the fruit MacLeod and Pieris, ; Adedeji et al. Singh et al. The most abundant volatile components in mango germplasms from China, the Americas, Thailand, India, Cuba, Indonesia, and the Philippines are monoterpenes Li et al.
The content of these molecules can vary according to the method used for their extraction and identification and quantification, such as solid-phase microextraction SPME Lalel et al. Pino et al. The following quantitative important class of volatile compounds in mango grown in Cuba was 90 aliphatic, 16 aromatics, and 8 terpene esters found, with ethyl acetate and ethyl butanoate as the major esters; lactones were also detected Pino et al.
The 3-carene is reported as the most abundant for the varieties Bizcochuelo, S. In the varieties Bizcochuelo, S. Hayden, and Amelie, the caryophyllene is abundant Pino et al.
The beneficial effects of the mango components in human health due to their dietary, nutritional, and biological properties are affected by fruit development, ripening, and senescence. The maturity stage is a significant aspect that affects the compositional quality of fruit including nutritional factors, since during fruit ripening occur important biochemical, physiological, and structural changes.
The development of mango fruit occurs in four phases: 1 the juvenile until 21 days from fruit setting, when a rapid cellular growth occurs; 2 phase of maximum growth between 21 and 49 days from fruit setting, involving cell enlargement and initiation of maturation; 3 maturation and ripening stage between 49 and 77 days from fruit set, when the respiration climacteric and ripening process occur; and 4 senescence stage from day 77 from fruit set onwards, considered as the post-ripening stage, which is susceptible to microbial attack followed by decay and death Tharanathan et al.
During the growth and ripening processes of mango fruit, changes in chemical composition occur Figure 2 , including decrease in ash level with some rise when nearing maturity, fiber remaining more or less constant, increase in the content of alcohol-insoluble solids due to starch accumulation, change of structural polysaccharides, and hydrolysis of starch into sugars, followed by fruit softening, biosynthesis of volatile compounds, chloroplast degradation, and chromoplast and carotenoid biosynthesis Joas et al.
All these changes are the consequence of physiological and biochemical events controlled during ripening of fruit involving the fruit softening that affects the eating quality Gill et al. The increased activity of some enzymes through ripening may favor internal physiological disorders referred to as the internal flesh breakdowns such as a soft nose, jelly seed, and spongy tissue Wainwright and Burbage, The occurrence and intensity of the alterations mentioned above depend on climate, geographical localization, and varieties; and the symptoms exhibit at the final step of fruit growth and maturation Thomas et al.
Biochemical studies showed increasing activity of the enzyme amylase through fruit growth, and this activity decreases towards the maturity stage Sen et al. It is important to note that depending on the variety of mango, the maturity process occurs starting in the skin towards the seed, as in the case of the Alphonso variety, while other varieties mature in the opposite direction such as in Haden, Kent, and Tommy Atkins.
The development of the fruit and the maturation process entail changes at the transcriptional level as demonstrated in the Alphonso variety, where it was observed that 4, transcripts correspond to different enzymes oxidoreductase, transferase, hydrolase, ligase, lyase, and isomerase and in which transferase enzymes were abundant followed by hydrolases in the tissues analyzed: flower, whole fruit 30 and 60 days after pollination, mature raw fruit, and pulp green, mid-ripe, and ripe fruit Deshpande et al.
This study identified genes encoding enzymes involved in metabolic pathways of primary and secondary metabolites Deshpande et al.
Novel transcripts involved in the biosynthesis of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, lactones, and furanones related with flavor have been also identified in Ataulfo mangoes, which are differentially regulated during fruit development; in addition, 79 novel transcripts of inhibitors of cell wall-modifying enzymes were also identified, which suggests that the activity of enzymes can be controlled Deshpande et al.
Starch exhibits a rapid rate of accumulation at the beginning of fruit development and decreases later, but it continues increasing until maturity Tharanathan et al.
A similar profile was observed in JinHwang mango grown in Taiwan Wongmetha et al. At the end of the maturity stage, reducing and non-reducing sugars are found to be increasing Mann et al.
During Tommy Atkins mango ripening, starch is hydrolyzed during the first week of harvest, but as the fruit becomes over-ripe, the content of starch and amylase activity is substantially reduced de Oliveira Lima et al. Several studies showed many compositional and metabolic differences between the healthy and damaged tissues. The last ones are responsible for the hydrolysis of sucrose. The accumulation of sucrose in Irwin mango was associated with the decrease of sucrose phosphate synthase activity, whereas the activities of acid invertase, neutral invertase, and sucrose synthase decreased at five developmental stages 50, 70, 90, , and days after anthesis.
A similar result was observed in JinHwang mango days after anthesis Wongmetha et al. During the initial stages of fruit development, sucrose phosphate synthase activity was higher than sucrose synthase activity and then decreased during the advances of the development of the fruit; in contrast, sucrose synthase activity increased from 0. During ripening, sucrose increased from 5.
Pectins are responsible for fruit texture. Pectin rises in the fifth week of mango fruit setting until the stone is formed, and then the pectin content decreases, leading to the fruit softening because of enzymatic degradation and solubilization of protopectin Jain, Mango fruit pulp is composed of parenchymatous tissues that consist of calcium salts of pectin located in the cell wall during the early stages of cell growth Voragen et al.
The deesterification of pectins and losses of calcium ions are characteristic of ripening fruit because of cell wall breakdown and dissolution of middle lamella Tharanathan et al. When mango cell walls are degraded during ripening, monosaccharides of the pectin complex are released, and the resulting water-soluble pectic materials in the cell walls lose arabinose and galactose accounting for the galacturonan-rich polysaccharides in the mesocarp Lizada, Moisture content was observed to range from A reduction in the soluble protein content happens up to 44 days after fruit setting and rises until 96 days Lakshminarayana et al.
At maturity, the amino acids alanine—arginine, glycine—serine, and leucine—isoleucine are predominant but decrease during ripening, with the exception of alanine Lakshminarayana et al. With respect to fatty acid content during mango ripening, it has been reported that there is an increase in triglyceride content in Alphonso mango fruit pulp, followed by modifications in the composition of fatty acid of the pulp Bandyopadhyay and Gholap, Similar patterns have been also observed in mango cultivars from India Selvaraj et al.
During the ripening, an equal distribution of palmitic acid and palmitoleic acid it has observed, as well as a reduction in linoleic acid content and an increase in linolenic acid content Desphande et al. The palmitic acid is incorporated to hydroxy fatty acids that are precursors of lactones; thus, a correlation between the aroma and flavor was observed using the ratio of palmitic acid to palmitoleic acid Bandyopadhyay and Gholap, ; Lizada, During the preclimateric and climateric stages, the mitochondria increase its capacity to oxidize fatty acids such as stearic and oleic acids, producing precursors for the synthesis of carotenoids and terpenoid volatiles Lizada, Organic acid content decreases as the mango fruit ripens, and consequently, the titratable acidity declines Shashirekha and Patwardhan, It has been reported that the enzyme activities involved in the Krebs cycle of mango fruit change during ripening Baqui et al.
For example, the citrate synthase activity is drastically decreased, the activities of isocitrate and succinate dehydrogenases increase Lizada, , and malic enzyme in mango pulp presents the highest activity just before the climacteric peak Dubery et al. Citrate synthase activity decreases during ripening, while isocitrate dehydrogenase and succinate dehydrogenase activities increase Baqui et al. Vitamin C contents in the pulp decrease during mango fruit ripening and are maximum in the early stages of growth Robles-Sanchez et al.
In addition, the amount of loss varied by species Hu et al. Moreover, Keitt mango showed significantly higher vitamin C content than did the other two varieties in the ripe phases, because of its direct inhibition of polyphenol oxidase PPO that probably confers better color and flavor retention during handling and processing Robinson et al.
This reduction in vitamin C levels has been also explained based on the coenzyme function for the ACC-oxidase involved for ethylene synthesis, or as a substrate for the oxalate and tartrate biosynthesis Mazid et al. The content of vitamin E also changes through the ripening of mango fruit. On the other hand, Tommy-Kent mango presented an increase in vitamin E from the immature to mature stage Niacin increased by 3.
The content of phenolic compounds polyphenols and phenolic acids changes during development until maturity due to their capacity for neutralizing free radicals, which are naturally produced during ripening processes or senescence Palafox-Carlos et al.
Total polyphenol contents in the immature stage in Kent and Tommy Atkins mango fruit were 4. Flavonoids were low during mango ripening because of low expression of flavonol synthase as observed in Ataulfo mango Palafox-Carlos et al. A similar profile was observed in Keitt and Xiangya mangoes grown in China for the content of total polyphenols in the pulp and peel, where a decrease was observed during ripening [in Keitt, Several phenolic compounds have been identified in four ripening stages selected according to the percentage of yellow color in the peel of Ataulfo mango, including gallic, chlorogenic, protocatechuic, and vanillic acids Palafox-Carlos et al.
A similar profile was reported for vanillic acid The pigmentation of the pulp in mango fruit occurs from the seed outwards Tharanathan et al. The chlorophyll present in the unripe stage is degraded during mango ripening, and earlier present pigments and biosynthesis of anthocyanins and carotenoids are uncovered Medlicott et al.
The activity of these enzymes leads to a complete reduction of peel chlorophyll a during ripening from 2. On the other hand, the total carotenoid content of the peel increases approximately fivefold during ripening, probably due to carotenoid synthesis, in addition to underlying pulp carotenoids Medlicott et al.
The increase in total carotenoids during maturity has been considered as ripening index and harvest indicator; that is, the cultivars Sensation and Xiangya grown in China showed significantly higher total carotenoid content values in peels than in pulp; on the contrary, the variety Keitt also grown in China exhibited an adverse result Hu et al. Ajila et al. The accumulation of anthocyanins, which contribute to the red coloration of the mango peel, is dependent on the level of sun exposure Medlicott and Thompson, For example, Saengnil and co-workers showed that mangoes cv.
Kent that were covered with brown paper bags had lower levels of anthocyanins and less redness in the peel than were mangoes not covered Saengnil and Kaewlublae, The accumulation of anthocyanins and flavonoids in the peel of mango fruit protects against the chilling injury and pathogen infection, probably because of the antioxidant capacity of these polyphenols inhibiting lipid peroxidation and reduction of decay incidence Sivankalyani et al.
These findings may lead to new strategies as selection of the resistant red fruit or technical methodologies that would increase the content of anthocyanins and flavonoids in mango fruit peel for improving postharvest traits and for improving diminishing losses Sivankalyani et al.
The synthesis of a mixture of volatile compounds is associated with the flavor and aroma during fruit ripening as mentioned in a previous section. This is a consequence of ethylene production as volatile components accumulate from skin and pulp, improving fruit aroma and flavor Lizada, ; Sergent et al. The skin of Alphonso mango has an important terpene content, while the pulp is rich in lactone Chidley et al. A similar profile of the volatile composition of skin and pulp of green Khieosawoei mango grown in Thailand Tamura et al.
The major volatile components present in ripe mango fruit are terpenes, while some other hydrocarbons, esters, and alcohols have also been detected in this stage Hunter et al. After harvest of mango fruit, losses in quantity and quality occur, affecting the content of nutritional and phytochemical components at different points in the handling chain Esguerra and Rolle, This is very important because consumers are interested not only in visual quality but also in health components and fruit safety Esguerra and Rolle, There is limited information about how postharvest handling practices influence nutrient and phytochemical levels in mango fruit.
Postharvest activities include all those that are carried out with the fresh product, which can be done in the field after harvest, in collection centers, packing plant, during transport, during storage, or during marketing Esguerra and Rolle, Trimming is the cutting of stem resulting in latex or sap stains deposited on the fruit surface, since the sap stored in the fruit ducts is under significant pressure, and after pedicel abscission, the sap falls on the peel of mango fruit Loveys et al.
The main cause of mango sap burn is attributed to a deposit of volatile compounds as terpinolene and carene through the lenticels, producing a tissue damage and the enzymatic browning Loveys et al. The development of these pigmented lesions is a response associated with stress indicators and the successive release of PPO Dixon and Paiva, that results in membrane damage with liberation of phenolic compounds deposited into the cell wall Beckman, ; Bezuidenhout et al.
The contact of sap or latex with the skin of mango induces lenticel discoloration, a red pigmentation described as red spots on the fruit surface caused by the synthesis of anthocyanins Kangatharalingam et al.
Prasad and Sharma compared the effect of manual and mechanical harvesting practices on total soluble solids TSS , total carotenoids, and antioxidant activity in four Indian commercial mango cultivars grown in India. Prasad and Sharma reported that independent of storage days and cultivar, no significant difference was observed in TSS between the manually harvested [ Amrapali mangoes had the highest TSS when harvested manually and mechanically These differing results might be due to the fact that mechanically harvested fruit continues to ripen after harvesting, allowing for high accumulation of TSS, while manually harvested fruit does not ripen post-harvesting Pacheco et al.
In relation to total carotenoid content, Prasad and Sharma reported that independent of storage days and varieties analyzed, an overall slight increase was observed in total carotenoid content when fruits were mechanically harvested 5. This slight increase could be due to the effect of mechanical harvesting technique on proper attainment of ripening throughout the shelf life of mango fruit Pacheco et al.
However, significant differences were found for total antioxidant activity in both manually and mechanically harvested mangoes. A slight increase of antioxidant activity was observed in fruit harvested mechanically 3.
This difference was even more obvious at the ninth day of storage, as fruit harvested mechanically had an antioxidant activity of 4. These results were attributed to the extent of physical abrasion, a physical damage that directly affects antioxidants such as vitamin C present inside the fruit, because this component is used up by the fruit for combating external stresses Pacheco et al.
On the contrary, when the tissues of the mango fruit are healthy and intact, the PPO enzyme is located in chloroplasts and the phenolic compounds in vacuoles, both separated, and thus, the reaction is avoided Ploetz et al. In the skin of Super Haden mangoes affected by anthracnose, a reduction in the total phenol content levels was observed On the other hand, by using hot water with polyethylene wax plus imazalil and two bags of Conserver 21 an ethylene absorber product , the total phenol content was Treatment with hot water also induces the expression of the protein of polygalacturonase that can inhibit fungal endopolygalacturonase, considered as an important factor for the resistance of plants to phytopathogenic fungi Li et al.
A similar result was reported by Kim et al. Hot water treatment Although thermal-processing techniques inactivate microorganisms and spoil enzymes, inadequate handling of heat-processing methods may induce several chemical changes in the fruit and reduces not only the content or bioavailability of some phytochemical compounds but also the organoleptic properties Patras et al.
Kim et al. These results suggest that with a proper time—temperature combination, these losses can be diminished, and fresh-cut products can still contain important levels of vitamin C during storage Djioua et al. Currently, the methods employed to extend the shelf life of mangoes include physical and chemical treatments to reduce respiration and ethylene production, but the storage techniques are expensive and not fully satisfactory and may lead to the development of off-flavor if temperatures used are lower than the optimum.
Treatment with plant hormones, such as methyl jasmonate, and their synthetic derivatives are used to improve mango fruit quality, to enhance color uniformity, to increase the activity of phenylalanine ammonia lyase, and to increase the content of total phenolic compounds including anthocyanins Lalel et al.
Other treatments such as 1-methylcyclopropene 1-MCP are used commercially to retard ripening, while ethrel is used to accelerate. In relation to chemical treatments to slow fruit softening, the addition of divalent calcium ions solutions promotes the formation of calcium bridges between the pectic polysaccharide chains Tharanathan et al.
The non-thermal-processing technologies such as irradiation has been used as treatments for preservation, causing minimal modifications to the quality attributes of food, but might affect levels of nutrients and phytochemical compounds conditioned to the dose and radiation source used i.
Reyes and Cisneros-Zevallos evaluated the effect on the total phenolic, carotenoids, and vitamin C content of Tommy Atkins mango after electron-beam ionizing radiation in a dose range of 1—3. They observed that flavonols after 18 days in storage 3. Cruz et al.
They reported that the higher levels of citric and succinic acids were present in the control group untreated fruit on the last day of the study. In addition, no significant differences in the total sugar content were observed between groups control vs. At present, molecular biology techniques are good options for the control of ripening, like the antisense RNA technology, which signifies a single type of DNA transcript of 19—23 nucleotides and is complementary to mRNA Xu et al.
This RNA technology has been used to regulate gene expressions during the replication, transcription, and translation. For example, antisense RNA of 1-aminocyclopropanecarboxylate oxidase inhibits the expression of rate-limiting enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of ethylene in tomatoes, delaying its maturation Oeller et al.
At present, ongoing studies have been applied to mangoes, among other fruits Xu et al. Mango fruit also provides macronutrients such as vitamins vitamin C, from 9. Except for biotin, all the other B vitamins have been found in mango fruit. In addition, mango fruit is an important source of polyphenols catechins, quercetin, kaempferol, rhamnetin, anthocyanins, tannic acid, and mangiferin; carotenoids, organic acids, and volatile compounds , useful for medicinal applications and also as indicators of fruit quality.
All these concentrations depend on ripe state of the mango pulp and peel. Knowing and understanding the changes in the chemical composition in mango fruit during its development will allow producers to better characterize their cultivars and select those that have phytochemical characteristics that give added value to the fruit, for example, enhancing fruit color, delaying the maturation process, selecting fruit with a greater contribution of certain nutrients, increasing antioxidant components, and improving fruit characteristics for export purposes or greater use for agro-industry and processing.
MEM-C and EY collected the literature; wrote the sections related to nutritional composition, phenolic and pigments compounds, and the changes of nutritional and phytochemical components during the postharvest process of the fruit; made critical edits; and reviewed the whole manuscript before submission. RB collected the literature, wrote the section on carbohydrates, and prepared the figures presented.
PL and JCGO collected the literature and wrote the sections related to volatile compounds and organic acids. BR collected the literature and contributed to the section on phenolic compounds. NL and JA collected the literature and wrote the sections related to changes of the nutritional and phytochemical compositions during growth and ripening. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
We also wish to thank Dr. Yahia for inviting Colombian researchers to be part of this manuscript and the work during its writing. Abbasi, A. Comparative assessment of phenolic content and in vitro antioxidant capacity in the pulp and peel of mango cultivars. Abu-Gaukh, A. Effect of harvesting method on quality and shelf life of mango fruits.
Adedeji, J. Characterization of glycosidically bound aroma compounds in the African mango Mangifera indica L. Food Chem. Ajila, C. Valuable components of raw and ripe peels from two Indian mango varieties. Stange, C.. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing Switzerland 79, 3— Andrade, E.
Aroma volatile constituents of Brazilian varieties of mango fruit. Food Comp. Andrade, M. Proteomics 75, — Arafat, L. Chilling injury in mangoes.
Netherlands: Wageningen University, Google Scholar. Aslam, J. Variations in vinblastine production at different stages of somatic embryogenesis, embryo, and field-grown plantlets of Catharanthus roseus L. In Vitro Cell. Augustin, J. Changes in the nutrient composition of potatoes during home preparation: 2. Potato Res. Bandyopadhyay, C. Changes in fatty acids in ripening mango pulp var. Food Agric. Baqui, S.
Mitochondrial enzymes in mango fruit during ripening. Phytochemistry 13, — Changes in the nutritional quality of five Mangifera species harvested at two maturity stages. Bartley, J. Volatile flavours of Australian tropical fruits. Mass Spectrom 16, — Beckman, C. Phenolic-storing cells: keys to programmed cell death and periderm formation in wilt disease resistance and in general defense responses in plants?
Plant Pathol. Bezuidenhout, J. Mango carbohydrates. Food 1 1 , 36— Bender, R. Brglez, M. Polyphenols: extraction methods, antioxidative action, bioavailability and anticarcinogenic effects. Berardini, M. Screening of mango Mangifera indica L.
Bernardes, S. Starch mobilization and sucrose accumulation in the pulp of Keitt mangoes during postharvest ripening. Food Biochem. Beyers, M. Bhat, R. Nutritional quality evaluation of electron beam irradiated Nelumbo nucifera seeds.
Bramley, P. Poole, G. Mango has over a dozen different types of polyphenols, including mangiferin, which is especially powerful. Polyphenols function as antioxidants inside your body. Vitamin A is essential for a healthy immune system. Not getting enough of this vitamin is linked to a greater risk of infection 31 , 32 , Mango also contains other nutrients that may also support immunity, including 36 :. Mango is a good source of folate, several B vitamins, as well as vitamins A, C, K, and E — all of which may help boost immunity.
For instance, it offers magnesium and potassium, which help maintain a healthy blood flow. These nutrients help your blood vessels relax, promoting lower blood pressure levels 37 , Animal studies have found that mangiferin may protect heart cells against inflammation, oxidative stress, and cell death 39 , 40 , In addition, it may help lower your blood levels of cholesterol, triglycerides, and free fatty acids 42 , While these findings are promising, research on mangiferin and heart health in humans is currently lacking.
Therefore, more studies are needed. Mango contains magnesium, potassium, and the antioxidant mangiferin, which all support healthy heart function. Mango has several qualities that make it excellent for digestive health Amylases break down complex carbs into sugars, such as glucose and maltose. Moreover, since mango contains plenty of water and dietary fiber, it may help with digestive issues like constipation and diarrhea.
One 4-week study in adults with chronic constipation found that eating mango daily was more effective at relieving symptoms of the condition than taking a supplement containing an amount of soluble fiber similar to that of mango This suggests that mangoes may have other components that aid digestive health, aside from dietary fiber.
However, more research is needed. Mango has digestive enzymes, water, dietary fiber, and other compounds that aid various aspects of digestive health.
Two key nutrients they contain are the antioxidants lutein and zeaxanthin. These nutrients are especially concentrated at the center of the retina, which is called the macula 46 , 47 , Inside the retina, lutein and zeaxanthin act as a natural sunblock, absorbing excess light.
In addition, they appear to protect your eyes from harmful blue light Mangoes are also a good source of vitamin A, which supports eye health. A lack of dietary vitamin A has been linked to dry eyes and nighttime blindness. Severe deficiencies can cause more serious issues, such as corneal scarring Mango contains lutein, zeaxanthin, and vitamin A, all of which support eye health.
Lutein and zeaxanthin may protect your eyes from the sun, while a lack of vitamin A can create vision problems. Polyphenols can help protect against a harmful process called oxidative stress, which is linked to many types of cancer Test-tube and animal studies have observed that mango polyphenols reduced oxidative stress. Mangiferin, a major polyphenol in mango, has recently gained attention for its promising anticancer effects. In animal studies, it reduced inflammation, protected cells against oxidative stress, and either stopped the growth of cancer cells or killed them 30 , While these studies are promising, more studies in humans are needed to better understand the potential anticancer effects of mango polyphenols in people.
Mango polyphenols may fight oxidative stress, which is linked to many health conditions, including colon, lung, prostate, breast, and bone cancers. However, you might find it difficult to cut due to its tough skin and large pit. It takes about 4 to 6 years for a tree to bear fruit. Trees are harvested once a year. It takes about 4 months for the fruit to mature and each one is harvested by hand.
Mango leaves are toxic for cattle feed. Burning their leaves, wood, or debris is also toxic. The fruit is not judged on ripeness by color, but by squeezing.
A ripe mango should have a little give. A firm fruit will ripen at room temperature within a few days. India is the largest producer of the fruit, followed by China and Thailand. There are about 4, acres being cultivated in Puerto Rico commercially for the last 30 years; however, the majority of the crop goes to Europe. The first attempt to introduce mangoes to the U.
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